|
The Introduction
Newar Buddhism is to
be classified in the tradition of Indian Vajrayana or Tantric Buddhism deriving
its lineages from Siddha tradition of Nalanda and Vikramashila monastic
universities. However, it has developed its peculiar characteristics which are
one of a kind in the Buddhist history. One should not forget that Newar Buddhism
possesses quite a number of indigenous elements, which are not to be found in
Indian Mahayana Buddhism. Now that Mahayana Buddhism has disappeared from India,
Newar Buddhism found in Kathmandu valley represents one of the few tradition in
the world which has retained features inherited directly from India. At one time
all forms of Buddhism were believed to have been found in the Buddhism of
Nepal. At present, there are
no longer any celibate monks among Newar Buddhist Sangha. The members of
community live in Vihara and have retained its designation (Sangha).
There are two status
within caste communities namely Vajracharya (Literally: Master of the Thunderbolt)
and Shakyabhikshu. The Vajracharyas were the masters of Tantric Buddhism and
ritual specialists whereas the Shakyabhikshus were Buddhist monks. The
Vajracharyas played a higher role than Shakyas because they were given additional
initiation (Achaluyegu) on Buddhist tantra. Only the male members of
this community after having undergone the rite of monastic ordination (skt:
Cudakarma) belong to the Sangha. Shakya and Vajracharya boys normally
undergo this monastic ordination at the age of five, seven or nine. The rule is
that they should be under twelve years of age. Elders of the
monastery addressed as Sthavira Aju will give them Pravrajyavrata
or monastic initiation. The initiated boy stays in the monastery for 4, 10, 16, 20, 25 years
for Buddhist studies. After finishing his studies he disrobes himself for his
lay Bodhisattva life. To facilitate his spiritual career, he goes through
marriage ceremony. When the couple receive instructions on Buddhist practices,
they would be given Vajracharya Abhiseka or Acharya Abhiseka. It forms one of the
series of life cycle ritual.[1] It should also be noted that Newar Buddhism has
no place for higher ordination (Upasampada) by which a novice monk
becomes a fully ordained Buddhist monk. The fact that Newar Buddhism has no
place for monastic life upgrading except for the four-days observance seems to
be a serious weakness [2] to the modern Buddhist and to the western educated
persons.
Newar Buddhism has recently become the subject of great interest and detail
study on different aspects for Siegfried Lienhard, Joohn K. Locke, David Gellner,
Michael Allen and others.[3]
The unique features of the Newar Buddhism and validity of its monasticism is
analyzed in this article. Newar Buddhists describe their structure of religion
as integrative in the nature of Shravaka, Mahayana and Vijrayana traditions.
Shravakayana in Newar Buddhism
To explain Newar Buddhism and its integrative behavior, it is befitting to give
an account of monastic rite when young boys receive ordination (skt:
Cudakarma). Before the neophyte's topknots are cut off, a ritualized
exchange between the disciples and the preceptor is supposed to take place. It
runs thus: [4]
“Oh
Guru, in accordance with your instruction, from this day, and until I have
attained enlightenment I shall go for Lord Buddha’s blessing (Sri Bhagavaan
Yaake Darsana Wane)”
Thus the guru is
requested, supplicated by him.
The Guru says, “I of
such and such name go for refuge to the Buddha. I go for refuge to the Dharma. I
go refuge to the Sangha. While this Mandala remains, give up desire (skt:
trsna).” (You, as pupil should say) “Oh Lord ! Oh Guru, greatly
compassionate. For the rest of my life, Ten Akusala Karma must be given
up, and other sins, various words-now I shall save beings and so forth.”
The pupil says, hearing this instruction, "O Lord, O Guru (as you are here)
killing and so on I despicably as you say, Oh lord, Guru, you have graciously
spoken I must go".
The Sanskrit version
of ritual handbook runs as follows:
kulaputra idanim
grhinama evam pravrajyavratam dharayam ; sakyo si va sakyoh?
(Now, son of good
family, are you capable or not of taking up the observance of going forth as you
should?)
The pupil says:
bho acarya mamatmame
pravrajyavratam vamcayami; krpam kuru tvam, aham itthamnama yavajjivam buddham
bhagavantam
mahakarunikam sarvajnam
sarvadarsinam sarvavairya bhayatitam mahapurusam abhedyakayam niruttara-kayam,
dharmakayam saranam gacchami gananam agram.
(Oh ! My preceptor I wish to undertake the observance of going
forth, please be compassionate. I of such and such name, shall for the rest of
my life go for refuge to the Lord Buddha who is greatly compassionate, all
knowing, all seeing, beyond the danger of all enemies, great man, of indivisible
body of the ultimate body, the Dharmakaya, foremost in all religious groups.)
The Guru says,
sadhu sadhu kulaputra grhalingam
parityajya pravrajyalingam sakyo si trisatyam eva kuru
(Well
done, well done, son of good family swear three times that you are capable of
abandoning the insignia of a householder and taking up the insignia of the
going-forth)
The pupil says,
bho acaryopadhyaya pravrajyavratam
sakyami niscayam trisatyam
(Oh
preceptor and taking up the capable of the observance of going forth (I declare
it is true) three times.
The Guru says,
abhunaham pravaksyami srnu vatsa
maharatah-vratacare kathascaiva pancasiksa vidhiyate pranam na hanyat na pibec
ca madayam mrsa na bhasya na haret parasvam (madanasvabhavam parisamisadya),
svargan ca gacched grhavat naranam, punas ca. himsa kale tatha nunam smanasa
vacasa pi va.
(Now
I, the greatly delighted one, shall explain. Listen dear one, the five precepts
followed in this observance are laid down with explanations. He should not kill
any living being, nor drink any alcohol, lie are not to be uttered, he should
not take others' goods. He should not act lustfully. If he does all this, he
goes to a heaven with other men though he be a householder. Furthermore, desire
to kill even for a particular occasion even in mind or speech is wrong.)
tasmat himsa na kuryani
alpayus ca bhavet naram. yada mayaratas caiva sarvajnanam parayate. dhavamsanam
sarvasastrani tasmat madayam na pibayet, mrsavadaratas caiva manyahinam sada
bhavet. tena mithya na sevanti duhkhapamkesu jayate. paradravyanulobhena
mahaduhkhesu jayate. daridravarnapamkesu paradravyani naharet. kamakrda sadacari
sada duhkhi bhavisyati. sada bhayam sada kastam tasmat kamam na sevayet. iti
upasakacarya
(Therefore, desire to kill
is not to be done. (Otherwise) a man's life is short. When men are addicted to
drinking, all knowledge and all learning is destroyed. Therefore, he should not
drink alcohol. He who is addicted to telling lies will also be despised. His
falsehood will be useless; he will be reborn in the mud of suffering. By
covering what belongs to others one is reborn to great sufferings (sunk) in the
mud of wretched untouchability, so, he should not take others‘ things. He who
always indulges in sex and love games will always suffer. Forever fear, forever
misery. therefore, he should not pursue physical pleasure. This is the conduct
of the layman.)
Then the disciple promises,
aham itthamnama yavajjivam
pravrajyavratam dharayami samanavaharantu mam upadhayaya.
(I, of such and such name,
for all my life take up the observance of going-forth. Bear witness for my
assistant priest)
After such a marvelous
dialogue between the Guru and his disciple, the priest proceeds to perform
necessary rituals.
Now the neophyte's topknot (Nep: Tupi) is cut off with a gold plated razor
while reciting this mantra:
Om sarva jnana avarana chedaya chedaya hum phat
(Cut cut all obstacles to understanding)
The absence of topknot is perhaps the most crucial marker of the distinction
between Shakya, Vajracharya Buddhists and the rest of other castes in the Kathmandu valley. After consecration by holy water from white
conch shell, the
boys are given a new name and three robes. They are given begging bowl and a
staff (silaku), which has an effigy of the Buddha (or of a Stupa) at the top.
They are permitted to enter into main shrine of Vihara and pay homage to Kwapadya and
make offerings. Newar Buddhists are very much attached to this four days
observance of monastic ideal to maintain one's Buddhist identity rather than
renouncing the worldly desires and become a Buddhist monk.
Duties of a Sakyabhikshu
The Shakya Bhikshu, who observe four days of going forth as part of Vajrayana
ritual in the Nepalese style are required to observe some specific duties:
-
For the four days the Shakyabhikshu must beg his food daily,
-
Must live the life of a Buddhist monk though they continue to live at home.
-
They have to observe the regulations of diet of the monk
-
Avoid contact with unclean (association with dogs and shoes), and
-
Keep ten precepts.
The neophyte receives his first alms from the senior ten elders (Dasaparamita
Sthavira Aju) of the monastery and his family Buddhist priest. During the tenure
of his monkhood he must visit the main shrine and pay homage to Kwapadya (main
deity) and make offerings.
On the fourth day the neophyte returns to the lay life. The boy then hands over
the begging bowl and staff, and takes off his robes. It is called
Chudakarmavisarjana. Since the topknot is never
maintained by Sakyabhikshu even after disrobing ceremony they are given the
status of Sakyabhikshu. The disrobing ceremony does not signify
the abandonment of monastic vows but transition from Sravakayana to Mahayana
practice. They remain as Bodhisattva.
It is difficult to pinpoint the exact time when the system of celibate
monasticism disappeared in Nepal. We are certain that celibate monks existed
even during the seventh century. Chinese pilgrim Xuan Zang (Hsuan-tsang) had
mentioned in his travel diary that the number of Hinayana and Mahayana Buddhist
monks were more than two thousand.
An inscription of Amshuvarma has also confirmed a conspicuous presence of
Bhikshuni Sangha belonging to the Mahasanghika sect
[5] as well as Mahasanghika
Bhikshu Sangha.[6] The inscription mentions:
tad prayojane ca caturvimsa mahayana pratipanna
aryabhikshunisamgha paribhauga akhayanivi
Now, the question arises as to what was the Vinaya lineage of Newar Buddhist
Tradition. At present, we come across difficulty in finding parallel reference
in the Chudakarmavidhi tradition with Mahasanghika or Mulasarvastivada
tradition. A newly discovered inscription in Bhaktapur also suggests a presence
of Mahasanghika Bhikshuni lineage.[7]
Duties of Buddhist Sangha in Newar Buddhist Vihara
The duties of elders are to oversee the daily, monthly, and annual Buddhist
functions and festivals. They also organize initiation into Bhikshu Sangha i.e.
(performance of Chudakarma, Achaluyegu ceremony of initiated
members’ offsprings)
as well as regulating the discipline of the Sangha and social rules.
All the male members who are initiated in Mahavihara constitute the Sangha.
Mahavihara has a Guthi which include all the initiated members. The senior-most member
of the Guthi of the Vihara is addressed as Mahasthavira, and the Chakresvara and
other elder are addressed as Sthavira Aju.
In the Viharas of
Kathmandu as well, daily worship of the main deity (kwapadya) enshrined
in the Vihara is performed. At one time, the Vihara
of Kathmandu Valley also had a complete schedule of rituals for the whole day.
This is no longer in practice except at Janabaha in Kathmandu
and Kwabaha in Patan.[8] Among these ritual practices the recitation of
Namasangiti, Danagatha, Aparimita
Dharani, Saptavidanottara Puja Strotra, Dasaparamita Strotra, and
Buddham trailokya Stortras are the most prominent ones. Besides, the recitation of
Astasahasrikaprajnaparamita, Pancharakshya and Nava
Sutra are the scriptural bases of the Newar Buddhism. However,
meditation on Samatha and Vipassana is definitely lacking. Those Vajracharya and
Shakya who had received the initiation on Cakrasamvara or Achaluyegu, however,
meditate for some time on deity yoga and some recitation only. Nowadays a
Vajracharya or Shakya very rarely perform the retreats for intensive practice.
Duties of a Bhikshu Sangha in a Theravada Monastery
The Buddhist monastic or the ordained Sangha has played a crucial role in
keeping alive and passing on the lineage of the teachings and practice since the
time of Buddha himself. Every Buddhist monastic community has some common
religious and devotional exercises each day. It is brief and simple in Theravada
monasteries, for example: Buddhapuja, and Paritrana, as well as Mangal Sutra
recitation in ceremonial and Kathinotsava occasions. In regular occasions, the
Theravada monks give the instructions on the practice of Samatha and Vipassana
meditation for the lay followers.
Duties of Bhikshu Sangha in the Tibetan Monastery
In most of the Tibetan monasteries, at about 4 A.M., monks usually gather
together with the morning bell. They clean up the floor and offer prostration to
the main deity of the monastery and some begin to offer water bowls and decorate
the altar with butter lamps. Monks gather to perform first torma (ritual cake)
offering by ceremonial tea. Then they recite texts on Guru Yoga, Vajrasattva,
Tara Puja and Long Life Buddha.
The forms of Guru Yoga (Padmasambhava and his lineage in case of Nyingma
tradition) may vary in each tradition but the plan is however similar in nature.
After formal group recital some silently sit in meditation until 7 to 8 A.M. If
the sponsors have some specific puja they continue it until its completion.
Sometimes they go out to the sponsors’ residence and do personal practices in their
own apartments or rooms. In some monasteries, small novice children (thaba)
usually read and write Tibetan grammar and English in the afternoon. They recite
by hearing small ritual texts.
In the afternoon around 5-7
P.M., monks get assembled for performing Puja of
protective deities like Mahakala and so forth. Sometime monks have to perform
Puja on the founder’s birthday or Drubchen ceremonies. The ceremonial rituals
may continue sometime even for two months at most and week at least. For Sakyapa
the tutelary deity ceremony of Hevajra (a Highest yoga tantra deity) last for
ten days.
In most of the Gelugpa monasteries, especially Kopan Monastery where facilities
are available for the resident monks, the full time study program includes
Buddhist philosophy, debate, English, Tibetan, Nepali language classes and Thangka
painting. Monks are trained to become teachers, meditation Masters and
translators.
In some great Kagyu and Nyingma monasteries namely Kanying and Sechen
monasteries where there are facilities, the resident monks and novices do have
an opportunity for higher philosophical studies such as Bodhicaryavatara of
Shanti Dev and Pramanavarttika of Dharamakirti. Most of the monasteries are run
by the support and donations from individual benefactors and sponsors. The abbot
of the each monastery hold responsibility for the function of the monastery.
It should be noted that Tibetan Buddhist monasticism is also based on Mahayana
and Vajrayana. It has two types of Buddhist monks: celibate Buddhist monks and
Tantric Buddhist Master with consort (Ngakpa Lama). Both of them wear maroon
in ceremonial puja.
To become a Tantric Buddhist
master one should have thoroughly gone through training under
a competent Buddhist Master and gone for retreats for at least three years and
should have some degree of realization. When his realization is authenticated by
his lineage Guru, he is authorized to act as the Vajra master. Because of high
degree of realization of the tantric master in profound doctrines of Buddhism,
they are given higher status than the celibate monk scholars. This tradition is
valid and substantiated by the Buddhist Sutras and Tantras.
To cite few examples, in the seventh century Chandrakirti revered Master
Chandragomin for his proficiency and dexterity in Namasangiti doctrine. Gampopa
revered Guru Milarepa as his root Guru for realization of Mahamudra. Venerable
Rwa-Lotsawa (Rwa lo-tsa-ba Dorse-grags) revered Nepalese Vajracharya Bharo for
his realization of Vajrabhairabha doctrine. He also revered his Guru Mahakaruna
(Ye Rang ba) of Patan who mastered in Tantra under his guidance.[9] He mastered in
Sambhara tantra, Samputatantra, Chakrasambara Heruka abhyudayanama,
Vajrabhairva
Tantra and several other tantras.[10] The Vinaya lineage of this Tibetan tradition
is Mulasarvastivada tradition.
Mahayana / Vajrayana
The Newar Buddhists, like Buddhists everywhere, take refuge in the Buddha, the
Dharma and the Sangha. In the Mahayana and Vajrayana context, the Buddha is of
course, Sakyamuni Buddha. But in Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhism, the Five
Tathagatas (Panch Buddhas: Vairochana, Akshobhya, Ratnasambhava, Amitabha and
Amoghasiddhi) are well known in ritual than the historical Buddha.
The Dharma is realization of Prajnopaya namely unity of wisdom and skilful
means. The texts are Vaipulya sutras: Astasahasrika Prajnaparamita,
Gandavyuha, Dasabhumikasutra, Saddharmapundarika, Suvarnaprabhasa,
Lankavatara, Samadhiraja,
Lalitavistara and Tathagataguhyaka Sutra. These texts are recognized as the
official texts. They are recited at various times, and the books are worshipped. In fact, worship is
favored than scholarly study.
The Sangha is of course the Bodhisttva Sangha. Much of the devotional life of
the people revolve around the worship of eight Bodhisattvas,[11] especially Avalokiteshvara and Manjushree. Avalokiteshvara is recognized as the head of
eight Bodhisattvas. He is the representative of Sangha of Bodhisattvas. Just as
in Theravada Buddhist tradition the Bodhisattva Sangha is excluded, similarly in
Newar Buddhist tradition Shravaka Sangha is excluded. Since the emphasis is laid
on Mahayana/Vajrayana tradition of Buddhist Sangha it would be unwise to expect
Buddhist Sangha of Newar Buddhists in Theravada context.
In Newar Buddhist tradition,
it seems to be no harm in giving Shakyaputra the
status of lay Buddhist monk provided that they maintain refuge and Bodhisttva
vows or even tantric samaya.
The rationale behind the abandonment of Shravaka practice is given in disrobing
ceremony of Chudakarma (Ne: Barechuegu). As part of ritual there is always a
dialogue between the Guru and the disciple. It thus goes-
Oh, Lord Guru ! By your grace I have undertaken the vow of going forth first, given the
ten unproductive sins in accordance with the five precepts and eight precepts
and carried out the disciple's path. Now I shall take up the path of Mahayana.
The Guru says:
Very good, lay disciple, take up the path of Mahayana. Take up
the practice of the great lord of liberation, the Guru Vajrasattva, lord of
mystic circle.[12] What is the practice of the Mahayana like? Listen and I will tell you the most fundamental of religious practices
unique to the Mahayana which can never be fulfilled without a consort. Nor can the
Mahayana or its observance be complete without tantric initiation. How much more
tantric initiation is necessary for liberation. Therefore, you, knowing the
ultimate god and goddesses who as skill-in means and wisdom (Prajnopaya), take
up the practice of Mahayana and abandon that of the Shravaka.
In these versions, entering the Mahayana under the instruction of the Guru can
make up the fault of abandoning the monastic vow. Taking consort for Buddhist
practice has been a general theme for Tantric Buddhist practitioner. The idea of
Swayamvara and Marriage has been a life cycle ritual as described in
Kriyasamuccaya of Jagaddarpana Acharya (Mahamandalacharya).
Exploring Celibacy in Bhikshu Sangha of Newar Buddhist Tradition
The Buddha often placed Dhamma first and then the Vinaya in relevance to his
teachings. According to the Buddha, Vinaya is the most important of the
Tripitaka (three baskets) for the survival of the Sasana. Vinaya rules are used
for regulating outward conduct of the individual and the collective practice of
the Sangha. Dhamma is for inward development and the attainment of a good life.
Celibacy is considered as holy and good in most of the religions of the world,
especially within the Buddhist Sangha of Theravada and Mahayana tradition. As
Buddhism is spread in Western countries, the practice of celibacy is being
critically questioned for the first time. In those places, many people consider
the voluntary abstention from sexual activity which is strange or unnatural.
If celibacy is a sole Buddhist religious ideal, then the student of
Buddhism can find those Japanese and High Tibetan Lamas whose marriages are
accepted by their cultures? Are they all subject, by their religious principle,
to ostracism as sinners then?
History shows that the practice of celibacy is as old as asceticism in India,
much older than the historical Buddha himself. Buddha was born, there were
ascetics who practiced celibacy as a spiritual discipline conductive to the
attainment of enlightenment. Although celibacy was quite common, the practice
may not have been very strict since some ascetics (rishis) took their wives with
them to practice asceticism in solitary places of India. When Buddha
taught celibacy as important commitment to his disciples, celibacy came to be
held in highest regard for its own sake as well as for the pleasing impression
it created in pious lay people. Once the strict practice of celibacy had become
a strong norm, its transgression came to be seen as a sinful thing.
In his first sermon the Buddha mentioned sexual intercourse as a base or low act
performed by common people as opposed to monks. He said that addiction to
attractive sensual pleasures and addiction to self torture are both extreme
practices. Since, as extremes, they are inconsistent with the middle path leading
to nirvana.[13] In Theravada tradition, Buddha had to prohibit every kind of
sexual behavior by member of the Sangha community as unfit acts and had to
punish him or her through formal meeting of the Sangha.
Only the willing celibate is a proper candidate for ordination, but others may
seek it. The monks' unmarried life is individually free. A monk can devote all
his time and energy to spiritual development. But if he is not active in
spiritual practices there is nothing special about his monkhood. It is both
waste of time and painful restraint on his freedom in terms of sexual activity,
especially when he longs for it.
According to Parajika rules of Vinaya, the ordained monk who has violated the
normal code of celibacy loses his monkhood. Such a monk cannot attain liberation
or Nirvana. It should be noted that the ultimate aim of the practice of celibacy
is to eradicate the mental defilement- greed, hatred, and delusion.
The fulfillment of celibacy is said to be the attainment of Nirvana.
In Newar Buddhist tradition, Bahi are said to be the repositories of celibate
monastic tradition. When celibate communities existed, if celibate monks decided
to become householder monks, they left their monastery and joined a bahi
[14]
According to John Locke's hypothesis, two institutions namely celibate and
non-celibate existed side by side from the earliest days. Gradually, as a
result of the dominant tradition of becoming married number of celibate monks (brahmacharya
bhikshu) decreased.[15] Locke confidently declares the celibate communities
were always in minority even from the Licchavi and Thakuri period..
Since the Buddha advocated the path of restraint or renunciation in Shravakayana
practices, the ultimate aim is the attainment of abiding Nirvana (Skt.
pratisthita Nirvana). But in Mahayana/Vajrayana form of Buddhism, the Buddha
advocated the path of transformation for his advanced bodhisattva disciples. He
taught the doctrine of Great Bliss and Emptiness to attain the state of
Buddhahood (Skt: apratisthita Nirvana i.e. Non-abiding Nirvana). In this form of
teaching Buddha Vajradhara made use of lust or even sexual bliss in the path to
enlightenment. From the point of view of Theravada tradition this view can be
merely a joke. On the other hand Tantric Buddhists regard their practice as
authentic in view, meditation, practice and function (drsti, dhyana, carya) and blameless in ideal as
the Middle path of the Buddha.
Newar Buddhism as a Lay Bodhisattva Practice
It seems that there had been a provision for lay Buddhist monkhood which became
very popular in the valley of Kathmandu. The validity of this tradition was also
corroborated by the text “Siksasamuccaya” of Acharya Shanti Deva. It runs thus:
punara aparma kulaputra bhavisyanti anagata
adhavani grahstha pravajita adikarmika bodhisattva.
The meaning of the text is as follows:
Again, oh, Sons of the family, there will be the householder beginner
(Skt:
adikarmika) and ordained bodhisattvas in the future.
Concerning Adikarmika Bodhisattva Acharya Anupamavajra stands prominent. His
work had a great influence on Nepalese Buddhist tradition. It is surprising and
interesting to note that Adikarmapradipa which was composed in 1098 A.D. by
Anupamavajra had profound impact on the daily practice of Newar Buddhist society
even till today. To state briefly, Adikarmapradipa deals with the following practices of Newar Buddhists.
-
Taking Refuge in Triple Gems
-
Reciting Namasangiti
-
To recite Bhadracarya Pranidhana
-
To offer Preta bali
-
To circumambulate Caitya, Buddha statues etc.
-
To perform Gurumandala rite
-
To meditate on tutelary deity
-
To recite Prajnaparamita and other Mahayana Sutras
-
To recite danagatha (stanzas of
giving)
-
To perform Bodhisattva practices joyfully
-
To study Buddhist scriptures
-
Offering food to Triple Gems and tutelary deity before eating
-
Offer fivefold prostration to Buddha of ten directions
-
Sleeping in a lion's posture after meditating on Deity Yoga
According to Newar Buddhist tradition, even after disrobing ceremony of
Cudakarma, the Shakyas and Vajracharyas do not cease to be bhikshu or Buddhist
monks, but they pass from the state of celibate bhikshu to that of householder
monks (grihasthi
bhikshu), a fact underlined by the term Sakyabhikshu used to refer to them down ages.
In disrobing ceremony the following lines are
articulated about the status of bhikshu.
You have gone through Sravakayana and now comes to Mahayana, the greatest of
the Buddhist Yanas. You have participated in some Vajrayana rituals and after
going through some higher ordinations you will know what Chakrasamvara is.[16]
The Impact of Master Atisha's Teaching on Newar Buddhism
Master Atisha who wrote
Bodhisattvakarmadimargavatara also propounded the
concept of the Adikarmika Bodhisattva practice. Since Atisha was contemporary
with Anupamavajara and Advavajra, both of them have borrowed the idea of lay
Bodhisattva practice from him.
-
Atisha first emphasized the practice of refuge and generation of Bodhicitta
on the basis of sevenfold practice (skt : saptavidhanolttara puja) Newar
Buddhists are proficient in performing “sattvapuja” (verse 5 of Adikarmapradipah).
-
He also promulgated the theory of moderation of consuming food habits and
food offerings to Gurus and three jewels (verse 10-11).
-
With a view to teach the whole sentient beings one should recite profound
Mahayana sutras (like Prajinaparamita and so forth) (verse 7).
-
After completing one's morning duties one should practice the act of fivefold
prostration to Triple Gems with a view to liberating all other sentient beings
and should sleep in lion's posture of Atisha after
completing one's devotional exercise (Caryasamgraha pradeepa, verse14).
[17]
-
One should practice the unity of Samatha and Vipassana and should realize the
emptiness of all body and ephemeral nature of all phenomena. Whereas
Anupamavajra mentions only the necessity of practice of Deity yoga (Caryasamgraha pradeepa,
verse
14).
-
Offering one's food to tutelary deities and Dharmapala before eating meal is
one fundamental daily practice of Adikarmic bodhisattva (see Caryasangraha
pradeepa, verse 11).
By analyzing these references we can conclude that Atisha’s teaching had great
influence on Newar Buddhist tradition too. Atisha’s reformation in Buddhist
monasticism is well known in Tibet. He tried his best to uplift Buddhist
monasticism during his sojourn in Nepal. He composed Caryasamgraha Predeepa, and
Vimalratnalekha nama to enhance the monastic ideal of Newar Buddhism. He even
strongly prohibited the act of taking initiation of Highest Yoga Tantra for
monastics. Because of short duration of his stay in Nepal his influence
could not be seen and got strengthened. Later Anupamavajra superseded Atisha's
influence because of his tantric teachings.
Decline of Celibate Monasticism
Now the question arises why Newar Buddhists prefer to be Grihastha Bhikshu
rather than to be celibate monks. There has been a constant conviction among the
historians or local Buddhists that celibate Buddhist monks existed in the Newar
Buddhist tradition until the advent of King Jayasthitimalla in the 15th
century.
There is a hypothesis that King Jayasthitimalla alone could not have wiped out the
celibate monastic tradition of Newar Buddhism. But as a matter of fact, the decline of celibate
monasticism in Nepal started long before his coming to power. He had to witness
the total disappearance of celibate monastic tradition by activating so-called
social reformation. We can guess that there were only a few celibate Buddhist
monks even during Atisha’s period. Atisha established a pre-Kadampa monastic order.
He ordained a prince and named him as Padmaprabha. One of his monk friends
due to growing influence of Buddhist tantrism, had asked Master Atisha for
promulgation of non-tantric Mahayana Buddhist doctrine. Accepting his request
Master Atisha had composed Caryasamgrahapradipa [18] to comfort him.
There might have been two causes on the decline of celibate Buddhist monastic
system of Newar Buddhist tradition. These are:
-
Lack of royal patronization, and
-
Impact of Vajrayana Buddhism
a. Lack of royal patronization
If we research and analyze deeply the historical background of other Buddhist
countries, it becomes clear that a strong patronage from a ruling circle is
essential to maintain the celibate monastic community. While considering the
events since Buddha’s period, his monastic community was well and fully
patronized by King Prasenjit, King Bimbisara, King Ajatasatru, and in later
periods, Emperor Ashoka, King Kaniska, King Harsha Vardhana, and some other Pala
and Sena Kings too had patronized the Buddhist Sangha.
When Islamic invasion took place in important monastic
centers of Buddhism in
India, the muslims ransacked and thoroughly destroyed them. With no supporters
for monastic community, the Sangha could not thrive in India, ending up with its
total disappearance.
On the other hand, the Buddhist monastic Sangha thrived and flourished with the
support of Kings and wealthy patrons in Tibet, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Burma and
some other Southeast Asian countries. The decline in monastic community could be
clearly seen in the withdrawal of active support and patronage from the rulers.
The same reason can be applied to Newar Buddhist monastic community too. Due to
the lack of support from Hindu rulers of Kathmandu valley, the celibate monastic
tradition could not survive, let alone flourish.
b. Impact of Vajrayana Buddhism
To describe the presence of celibate Buddhist monks during the transition period
from 880 to 1200 A.D. of Nepalese Buddhist history would be only speculative
rather than factual.
The emergence and flourishing of Vajrayana Buddhism and its associated cults
were distinctly visible due to the activities of Mahasiddha tradition of Highest
Yoga Tantra in Nepal and India. The rise of Vajrayana Buddhism paved the way for
the growth on non-celibate monastic tradition in India, Nepal and Tibet till the
advent of Atisha (982-1054). It is a fact that with the rise of Vajrayana,
celibate Buddhist monastic traditions began to dwindle and then slowly
disappeared in Nepal completely by the end of 15th century.
The transition period of Nepal witnessed the birth of several outstanding
Buddhist Masters of Nepal who were well versed in Tantric Buddhism. Nepalese
Buddhist Masters had constant touch with the Indian and Tibetan Buddhist
Masters. According to Padma Kathang, a treasure text of Nyingma tradition, Buddhist Master Guru Padma Sambhava is said to have visited
Sankhu, Pharping and other places in Kathmandu valley and diffused Tantric
Buddhist teachings around the eighth century. He took two female disciples called Sakyadevi and Kalasiddhi
as his consorts for the practice of Atiyoga sadhana.[19]
Guru Paindapa and Chitherpa were the famous and gifted disciples of Naropa (10th
century). Marpa (11th century), the great translator of Tibet, had stayed in the Kathmandu valley for three years to study Anuttarayoga Tantra under Paindapa and
Chitherpa. According to the biography of Marpa, he received teachings on
Catuhpith Tantra and Cakrasamvara Tantra from these Nepalese Guru at Ratnakara
Mahavihara (Ha Baha) of Patan.[20]
The study of Highest Yoga Tantra among these great Masters is a common
curriculum of their tantric studies. It is generally thought that the practice
of highest Yoga Tantra is not fit for every body. For people who lack necessary
qualifications, Tantra is said to be extremely dangerous. Such people can
greatly harm themselves if they enter into tantric practice. Thus, the Dalai
Lama cautions:
Tantra is not appropriate for the minds of many. If one's
mental continuum has not been ripened by the practices common to both sutra and
tantra such as realisation of suffering, impermanence, refuge, love, compassion,
altruistic mind generation, and emptiness of inherent existence, practice of the
Mantra vehicle can be ruinous through one's assuming an advanced practice
inappropriate to one's capacity. Therefore, its open dissemination is
prohibited; practitioners must maintain secrecy from those who are not vessels
of this path.[21]
Those who are judged to be suitable receptacles for tantric initiations are
sworn to secrecy. The initiates are required to take a series of vows (Samaya),
one of which is not to reveal tantric teachings openly. The promised
retributions for breaking the vows include painful suffering in “Vajra hells”
reserved for those who transgress their tantric promises. It involves taking
many types of initiations. Four of the most important are:
-
Kalasa abhiseka (Vase empowerment)
-
Guhya abhiseka (Secret empowerment)
-
Prajna abhiseka (Wisdom empowerment)
-
Sabda abhiseka (Word empowerment)
The first involves giving initiation using water in a vase and is found in all
four tantra sets. The other three are used only in highest yoga tantra. It is
taught that receiving vase initiation causes to attain the rank of Nirmanakaya
Body of the Buddha.
The secret, knowledge and word initiation, sometimes involve practice with a
Karmamudra (actual consorts) and ingestion of impure substances. The Karmamudra
and substances may be either imagined or real in Tibetan tradition. But in
Nepalese tradition use of real Karmamudra is stressed while taking acharya
abhiseka too. The followers of these tantras use the desire in the path to
enlightenment. They can transform energy of sexual desire into blissful wisdom
consciousness. Through Deity Yoga, they enhance the experience of wisdom and
compassion. The ultimate goal of these practitioners is the attainment of
Buddhahood in one life time. Since these involve sexual practices, the celibacy
of the monkhood is dangerously threatened. That is why Atisha in his Bodhipatha
pradeepa strongly prohibited the monks from practicing Highest Yoga Tantra for it endangers
their celibacy of monastic vows. According to Atisha Dipamkara, lay Bodhisattva
life is much more favorable for the practice of Highest Yoga Tantra disciplines
as stated in Bodhipathpradipa:
For attaining Bodhisambhara in a simple way it has been set forth in the Kriya
and
Carya (action and practice) ways. If one is desirous of the practice of
Guhyamantra by pleasing the Guru, one receives the complete Acharyabhiseka. Blessed
thus, you will purify all the negativities and become suitable vessel to achieve
realization. In Adi Buddha Maha tantra, it is strictly prohibited that secret
wisdom initiation is not the privilege of the celibate monks. The ordained one
who abides in the asceticism can receive that initiation, the vow of asceticism
will degenerate due to the practices of restrictions. The practitioner will be
defeated, downfall will arise, due to which he will fall among the lower realms
and never will there be realization.[22]
If this is so why Newar Buddhists take risk in being a celibate monk and at
the same time practice Anuttara yoga tantra? That’s why, their preference to be a lay Bodhisattva practitioner is most likely one. Atisha also gives an option that
those monastics who are highly advanced practitioners, and have perceived
permission from the authentic Masters, for them there is no prohibition to
receive these four initiations and practice. Later on, Tantric Masters began to
give these initiations without taking students’ qualification into consideration and the Sangha
suffered a lot. This resulted in a swift decline of monastic Buddhism in Nepalese Vajrayana tradition.
Conclusion
We have just discussed the nature of Newar Buddhism as being faultless according
to the textual tradition. But if it is not reinforced with practice and study, it might
become an obsolete religion. The purpose of this article is not to glorify the Newar Buddhism but present the existing situation. It is true that lay
Bodhisattva practice is valid tradition authenticated by Siksasamuccaya of
Shanti Deva. Thus the Newar Buddhism cannot be said to be corrupt form of
Buddhism as some are tempted to allege. All forms of religious principles are
followed by Newar Buddhists too.
Therefore, it is
necessary that Newar Buddhists should revive and receive
the lost teachings of Tantric Vajrayana Buddhism from Tibetan Buddhist Masters
to bridge the gap of lineage of practice that has been ignored and lost in a
way. If we could create some celibate Buddhist monks practicing Newar Vajrayana
Buddhism then the structure of Newar Buddhism can be complete. In order to achieve this goal, a good relation and interaction with Theravada
and Tibetan Buddhist monks should be established.
It is true that four days of observance of monastic vows are too symbolic in
character. It lacks the foundation of monastic upgrading. So the Theravada monks
who were trained in Burma, Thailand and Sri Lanka even charged Newar Buddhist
monasticism with having no ground at all. The basis of their charge is that
Newar Vajracharya and Shakyas are lay Buddhists and they are not monks. As it is
discussed, the sustenance of Buddhist monasticism is very difficult if not
impossible without the support and cooperation from the government. Nepal has
preserved Buddhist Sanskrit literature. Nepalese scholars can contribute a lot
to Sanskrit Buddhism. There are yet many unexplored areas of
Buddhist culture and practices among the Newar Buddhism. At last, to conclude,
the words of Suniti Kumar Chatterji, the famous Indian Buddhist Scholar, is worth
mentioning:
One great service the people of Nepal did particularly the highly civilized Newars of the Nepal valley, was the preservation of all the manuscripts of
Mahayana Buddhist literature in Sanskrit, it was the contribution of Sri Lanka
to have preserved for human kind the entire mass of the Pali literature of
Theravada Buddhism. This was also on to Burma, Cambodia and Siam. It was
similarly the great achievement of people of Nepal to have preserved the equally
valuable original Sanskrit texts of Mahayana Buddhism
|
